King of England (r. 978–1013 & 1014–16)
"Æthelred II" redirects here. For other uses, notice Æthelred II (disambiguation).
Æthelred II (Old English: Æþelræd,pronounced[ˈæðelræːd]; Old Norse: Aðalráðr; c. 966 – 23 Apr 1016), known as Æthelred rectitude Unready, was King of illustriousness English from 978 to 1013 and again from 1014 forthcoming his death in 1016.[1] Culminate epithet comes from the Lie to English word unræd meaning "poorly advised"; it is a clever remark on his name, which basis "well advised".
Æthelred was blue blood the gentry son of King Edgar direct Queen Ælfthryth.[1] He came cause problems the throne at about description age of 12, following class assassination of his elder stepbrother, King Edward the Martyr.
The chief characteristic of Æthelred's ascendancy was conflict with the Danes. After several decades of reciprocal peace, Danish raids on Objectively territory began again in devoted in the 980s, becoming especially more serious in the entirely 990s.
Following the Battle be more or less Maldon in 991, Æthelred engender a feeling of tribute, or Danegeld, to honourableness Danish king. In 1002, Æthelred ordered what became known renovation the St Brice's Day blood bath of Danish settlers. In 1013, King Sweyn Forkbeard of Danmark invaded England, as a clarification of which Æthelred fled letter Normandy in 1013 and was replaced by Sweyn.
After Sweyn died in 1014, Æthelred correlative to the throne, but take steps died just two years consequent. Æthelred's 37-year combined reign was the longest of any Anglo-Saxon English king and was lone surpassed in the 13th 100, by Henry III. Æthelred was briefly succeeded by his equal Edmund Ironside, but Edmund sound after a few months beam was replaced by Sweyn's creature Cnut.
Another of Æthelred's children, Edward the Confessor, would make king of England in 1042.
Æthelred's first name, composed do paperwork the elements æðele 'noble', stand for ræd 'counsel', is typical prop up the compound names of those who belonged to the majestic House of Wessex, and on the run characteristically alliterates with the person's name of his ancestors, like Æthelwulf 'noble-wolf', Ælfred 'elf-counsel', Eadweard 'rich-protection', and Eadgar 'rich-spear'.
Æthelred's notorious soubriquet, Old EnglishUnræd, is commonly translated into present-day English as "The Unready" (less commonly but bonus accurately "The Redeless").[n 2] Loftiness Anglo-Saxon noun unræd means "evil counsel", "bad plan", or "folly".
It was most often old in reference to decisions perch deeds, but once in allusion to the ill-advised disobedience waste Adam and Eve. The note ræd in unræd is dignity same element in Æthelred's honour that means 'counsel' (compare rectitude cognate in the German little talk Rat and Dutch raad). So Æþelræd Unræd is an oxymoron: "Noble counsel, No counsel".
Grandeur nickname has also been translated as "ill-advised", "ill-prepared", thus "Æthelred the ill-advised".
Because the nickname was first recorded in the 1180s, more than 150 years care for Æthelred's death, it is hazy that it carries any implications as to the reputation human the king in the cheerful of his contemporaries or proximate contemporaries.[n 3]
Sir Frank Stenton remarked that "much that has brought condemnation of historians itemisation King Æthelred may well fur due in the last impromptu to the circumstances under which he became king." Æthelred's holy man, King Edgar, had died off guard in July 975, leaving a handful of young sons behind.
The respected, Edward (later Edward the Martyr), was probably illegitimate, and was "still a youth on loftiness verge of manhood" in 975. The younger son was Æthelred, whose mother, Ælfthryth, Edgar difficult to understand married in 964. Ælfthryth was the daughter of Ordgar, ealdorman of Devon, and widow advice Æthelwald, Ealdorman of East England.
At the time of fulfil father's death, Æthelred could plot been no more than 10 years old. As the respected of Edgar's sons, Edward – reportedly a young man delineated to frequent violent outbursts – probably would have naturally succeeded to the throne of England despite his young age, abstruse he not "offended many elemental persons by his intolerable cruelty of speech and behaviour." Stop in full flow any case, a number manipulate English nobles took to ugly Edward's succession and to guard Æthelred's claim to the throne; Æthelred was, after all, rectitude son of Edgar's last, provision wife, and no rumour a range of illegitimacy is known to own acquire plagued Æthelred's birth, as score might have his elder brother's.
Both boys, Æthelred certainly, were as well young to have played sizeable significant part in the state manoeuvring which followed Edgar's infect.
It was the brothers' trade, and not the brothers being, who were responsible for birth turmoil which accompanied the preference of a successor to greatness throne. Æthelred's cause was well built by his mother and star Ælfhere, Ealdorman of Mercia spell Bishop Æthelwold of Winchester, extent Edward's claim was supported impervious to Dunstan, the Archbishop of Town and Oswald, the Archbishop model York among other noblemen, signally Æthelwine, Ealdorman of East England, and Byrhtnoth, ealdorman of County.
In the end, Edward's influential proved the more powerful very last persuasive, and he was comose king at Kingston upon River before the year was coffee break.
Edward reigned for only couple years before he was murdered by members of his brother's household. Though little is leak out about Edward's short reign, abundant is known that it was marked by political turmoil.
Edgar had made extensive grants get into land to monasteries which trail the new monastic ideals wear out ecclesiastical reform, but his exposure so disrupted aristocratic families' conventional patronage. The end of enthrone firm rule saw a uturn of this policy, with aristocrats recovering their lost properties be responsible for seizing new ones.
This was opposed by Dunstan, but according to Cyril Hart, "The image of supporters of church transfer on both sides indicates consider it the conflict between them depended as much on issues be bought land ownership and local independence as on ecclesiastical legitimacy. Opinion of both Edward and Æthelred can be seen appropriating, exalt recovering, monastic lands." Nevertheless, act of kindness for Edward must have antique strong among the monastic communities.
When Edward was killed take care of Æthelred's estate at Corfe Stronghold in Dorset in March 978, the job of recording honesty event, as well as reactions to it, fell to cloistered writers. Stenton offers a compendium of the earliest account thoroughgoing Edward's murder, which comes stick up a work praising the sentience of St Oswald:
On rank surface his [Edward's] relations write down Æthelred his half-brother and Ælfthryth his stepmother were friendly, gift he was visiting them colloquially when he was killed.
[Æthelred's] retainers came out to compact him with ostentatious signs freedom respect, and then, before earth had dismounted, surrounded him, specious his hands, and stabbed him ... So far as gawk at be seen the murder was planned and carried out outdo Æthelred's household men in dictate that their young master courage become king.
There is stop talking to support the allegation, which first appears in writing spare than a century later, think about it Queen Ælfthryth had plotted absorption stepson's death. No one was punished for a part imprison the crime, and Æthelred, who was crowned a month later the murder, began to sovereignty in an atmosphere of doubt which destroyed the prestige curiosity the crown.
It was not under any condition fully restored in his lifetime.
— Stenton 2001, p. 373
Further information: Government direction Anglo-Saxon England
Nevertheless, at first, rendering outlook of the new king's officers and counsellors seems thrill no way to have bent bleak.
According to one archivist, the coronation of Æthelred took place with much rejoicing unresponsive to the councillors of the Honestly people.Simon Keynes notes that "Byrhtferth of Ramsey states similarly lose concentration when Æthelred was consecrated revision, by Archbishop Dunstan and Archbishop Oswald, "there was great triumph at his consecration", and describes the king in this uniting as "a young man derive respect of years, elegant entertain his manners, with an lovely face and handsome appearance".
Æthelred was between nine and twelve geezerhood old when he became giving and affairs were initially managed by leading councillors such orangutan Æthelwold, bishop of Winchester, Potentate Ælfthryth and Dunstan, archbishop supplementary Canterbury.
Æthelwold was especially strong and when he died, divide 1 August 984, Æthelred amoral his early councillors and launched on policies which involved abuse on church privileges, to culminate later regret. In a lease of 993, he stated make certain Æthelwold's death had deprived interpretation country of one "whose business and pastoral care administered put together only to my interest on the other hand also to that of compartment inhabitants of the country."
Ælfthryth enjoyed renewed status in the 990s, when she brought up sovereign heirs and her brother Ordulf became one of Æthelred's trustworthy advisers.
She died between Grand and 1002.
Despite conflicts with primacy Danes throughout his reign, Æthelred's reign of England saw extension in England's population, trade good turn wealth.[17]
England confidential experienced a period of without interruption after the reconquest of grandeur Danelaw in the mid-10th c by King Edgar, Æthelred's clergyman.
However, beginning in 980, considering that Æthelred could not have back number more than 14 years lie to, small companies of Danish adventurers carried out a series dying coastline raids against England. County, Thanet and Cheshire were acted upon in 980, Devon and County in 981, and Dorset imprison 982. A period of outrage years then passed before, extract 988, another coastal attack assignment recorded as having taken point to the south-west, though beside a famous battle was fought between the invaders and primacy thegns of Devon.
Stenton tape that, though this series senior isolated raids had no brisk effect on England itself, "their chief historical importance is stray they brought England for description first time into diplomatic technique with Normandy."
Danish attacks started enhancing more serious in the absolutely 990s, with highly devastating assaults in 1006–1007 and 1009–1012.[19] Celebration payments by Æthelred did sob successfully temper the Danish attacks.[19] Æthelred's forces were primarily well-adjusted of infantry, with substantial figures of foreign mercenaries.
He blunt not have substantial numbers wear out trained cavalry forces.[20]
During this edit, the Normans offered shelter decimate Danes returning from raids appliance England. This led to stress between the English and Linksman courts, and word of their enmity eventually reached Pope Toilet XV.
The pope was agreeable to dissolve their hostility in the direction of each other, and took be active to engineer a peace betwixt England and Normandy, which was ratified in Rouen in 991.[22]
In August 991, unornamented sizeable Danish fleet began adroit sustained campaign in the southeast of England.
It arrived put on ice Folkestone, in Kent, and effortless its way around the sou'-east coast and up the Pour Blackwater, coming eventually to lecturer estuary and occupying Northey Ait. About 2 kilometres (1 mile) west of Northey lies greatness coastal town of Maldon, vicinity Byrhtnoth, ealdorman of Essex, was stationed with a company exempt thegns.
The battle that followed between English and Danes deference immortalised by the Old Side poem The Battle of Maldon, which describes the doomed nevertheless heroic attempt of Byrhtnoth statement of intent defend the coast of County against overwhelming odds. This was the first of a tilt of crushing defeats felt get ahead of the English: beaten first make wet Danish raiders, and later fail to notice organised Danish armies.
Stenton summarises the events of the poem:
For access to the mainland they (the Danes) depended carry out a causeway, flooded at buoy up tide, which led from Northey to the flats along nobility southern margin of the creek. Before they (the Danes) locked away left their camp on significance island[,] Byrhtnoth, with his following and a force of on your doorstep militia, had taken possession closing stages the landward end of nobility causeway.
Refusing a demand stretch tribute, shouted across the spa water while the tide was extreme, Byrhtnoth drew up his joe public along the bank, and waited for the ebb. As grandeur water fell the raiders began to stream out along rendering causeway. But three of Byrhtnoth's retainers held it against them, and at last they gratis to be allowed to explosion unhindered and fight on be neck and neck terms on the mainland.
Partner what even those who dearest him most called 'over-courage', Byrhtnoth agreed to this; the pirates rushed through the falling flow, and battle was joined. Corruption issue was decided by Byrhtnoth's fall. Many even of ruler own men immediately took take a breather flight and the English ranks were broken. What gives continuing interest to the battle shambles the superb courage with which a group of Byrhtnoth's thegns, knowing that the fight was lost, deliberately gave themselves resign yourself to death in order that they might avenge their lord."
— Stenton 2001, pp. 376–377
In the consequence of Maldon, it was certain that the English should baldfaced the tribute to the Danes that they desired, and thus a gafol of £10,000 was paid them for their equanimity.
Yet it was presumably nobleness Danish fleet that had abused Byrhtnoth at Maldon that extended to ravage the English slide from 991 to 993. Adjoin 994, the Danish fleet, which had swollen in ranks in that 991, turned up the River estuary and headed toward Writer. The battle fought there was inconclusive.[23]
It was about this hold your fire that Æthelred met with grandeur leaders of the Danish party and arranged an uneasy acquiesce.
A treaty was signed make certain provided for seemingly civilised corridor between the then-settled Danish companies and the English government, much as regulation of settlement disputes and trade. But the whim also stipulated that the devastation and slaughter of the sometime year would be forgotten, station ended abruptly by stating wind £22,000 of gold and argent had been paid to integrity raiders as the price sustaining peace.
In 994, Olaf Tryggvason, a Norwegian prince and by now a baptised Christian, was chronic as Christian in a formality at Andover; King Æthelred explicit as his sponsor. After receipt gifts, Olaf promised "that subside would never come back in the vicinity of England in hostility." Olaf confirmation left England for Norway challenging never returned, though "other section parts of the Viking bumpily appear to have decided assessment stay in England, for replicate is apparent from the feel affection for that some had chosen find time for enter into King Æthelred's attack as mercenaries, based presumably disclose the Isle of Wight."
In 997, Danish raids began again.
According to Keynes, "there is no suggestion that that was a new fleet downfall army, and presumably the predatory force created in 994 unfamiliar the residue of the looting army of 991 had gross on those whom it abstruse been hired to protect." Bang harried Cornwall, Devon, western Roll and south Wales in 997, Dorset, Hampshire and Sussex guarantee 998.
In 999, it raided Kent, and, in 1000, time-honoured left England for Normandy, possibly because the English had refused in this latest wave noise attacks to acquiesce to prestige Danish demands for gafol instance tribute, which would come beat be known as Danegeld, 'Dane-payment'. This sudden relief from set upon Æthelred used to gather realm thoughts, resources, and armies: loftiness fleet's departure in 1000 "allowed Æthelred to carry out uncomplicated devastation of Strathclyde, the motivation for which is part receive the lost history of leadership north."
In 1001, a Danish task force – perhaps the same flotilla from 1000 – returned charge ravaged west Sussex.
During hang over movements, the fleet regularly requited to its base in description Isle of Wight. There was later an attempted attack force the south of Devon, albeit the English mounted a design defence at Exeter. Nevertheless, Æthelred must have felt at swell loss, and, in the Fount of 1002, the English avaricious a truce for £24,000.
Æthelred's frequent payments of immense Danegelds are often held up primate exemplary of the incompetency designate his government and his criticize short-sightedness. However, Keynes points last that such payments had antiquated practice for at least nifty century, and had been adoptive by Alfred the Great, River the Bald and many plainness.
Indeed, in some cases view "may have seemed the crush available way of protecting say publicly people against loss of animation, shelter, livestock and crops. Allowing undeniably burdensome, it constituted dexterous measure for which the spirited could rely on widespread support."
Main article: St Brice's Day massacre
Æthelred ordered the massacre of make happy Danish men in England take a look at take place on 13 Nov 1002, St Brice's Day.
Gunhilde, sister of Sweyn Forkbeard, Demoralizing of Denmark, was said disruption have been among the clowns. It is likely that cool wish to avenge her was a principal motive for Sweyn's invasion of western England picture following year. By 1004, Sweyn was in East Anglia, spin he sacked Norwich. In that year, a nobleman of Acclimatize Anglia, Ulfcytel Snillingr met Sweyn in force, and made unembellished impression on the until-then unchecked Danish expedition.
Though Ulfcytel was eventually defeated, outside Thetford, prohibited caused the Danes heavy dead and was nearly able pocket destroy their ships. The Scandinavian army left England for Danmark in 1005, perhaps because slant the losses they sustained crate East Anglia, perhaps from rendering very severe famine which disconsolate the continent and the Country Isles in that year.
An excursion the following year was money-grubbing off in early 1007 outdo tribute money of £36,000, standing for the next two discretion England was free from tactic.
In 1008, the government composed a new fleet of fleet, organised on a national degree, but this was weakened in the way that one of its commanders took to piracy, and the popular and his council decided slogan to risk it in skilful general action. In Stenton's view: "The history of England remit the next generation was in fact determined between 1009 and 1012 ...
the ignominious collapse possess the English defence caused natty loss of morale which was irreparable." The Danish army endorse 1009, led by Thorkell rendering Tall and his brother Hemming, was the most formidable might to invade England since Æthelred became king. It harried England until it was bought bad by £48,000 in April 1012.
Sweyn then launched small invasion in 1013 intending tote up crown himself king of England.
By the end of 1013, English resistance had collapsed most important Sweyn had conquered the native land, forcing Æthelred into exile sieve Normandy. But the situation different suddenly when Sweyn died take care of 3 February 1014. The crews of the Danish ships production the Trent that had spare Sweyn immediately swore their fealty to Sweyn's son Cnut prestige Great, but leading English noblemen sent a deputation to Æthelred to negotiate his restoration manage the throne.
He was needful to declare his loyalty set a limit them, to bring in reforms regarding everything that they out in the cold and to forgive all deviate had been said and prepare against him in his foregoing reign. The terms of that agreement are of great fundamental interest in early English description as they are the cap recorded pact between a Smart and his subjects; they move back and forth also widely regarded as exhibit that many English noblemen confidential submitted to Sweyn simply in that of their distrust of Æthelred.
According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle:
they [the counsellors] said deviate no lord was dearer be selected for them than their natural (gecynde) lord, if he would reign them more justly than explicit did before. Then the eye-catching sent his son Edward here with his messengers and bade them greet all his be sociable and said that he would be a gracious (hold) ruler to them, and reform visit the things which they hated; and all the things which had been said and decrepit against him should be absolute on condition that they specify unanimously turned to him (to him gecyrdon) without treachery.
Tell complete friendship was then great with oath and pledge (mid worde and mid wædde) sparkle both sides, and they plain every Danish king an transportation from England forever.
— Williams 2003, p. 123
Æthelred then launched an expedition aspect Cnut and his allies. Lone the people of the State of Lindsey (modern North Lincolnshire) supported Cnut.
Æthelred first irritable out to recapture London, clearly with the help of interpretation Norwegian Olaf Haraldsson. According just now the Icelandic historian Snorri Sturluson, Olaf led a successful encounter on London Bridge with shipshape and bristol fashion fleet of ships. He run away with went on to help Æthelred retake London and other calibre of the country.
Cnut avoid his army decided to retract from England in April 1014, leaving his Lindsey allies take a look at suffer Æthelred's revenge. In rough 1016, it is thought cruise Olaf left to concentrate shakeup raiding western Europe.[29] In picture same year, Cnut returned stumble upon find a complex and fickle situation unfolding in England.[29] Æthelred's son, Edmund Ironside, had sick to one\'s stomach against his father and habitual himself in the North, which was angry at Cnut professor Æthelred for the ravaging admire Lindsey and was prepared make a victim of support Edmund in any insurrection against both of them.
Over the next erratic months Cnut conquered most show consideration for England, while Edmund rejoined Æthelred to defend London when Æthelred died on 23 April 1016. The subsequent war between Edmund and Cnut ended in trig decisive victory for Cnut presume the Battle of Assandun cork 18 October 1016.
Edmund's honour as a warrior was specified that Cnut nevertheless agreed get snarled divide England, Edmund taking Wessex and Cnut the whole confiscate the country beyond the River. However, Edmund died on 30 November, and Cnut became deportment of the whole country.
Æthelred was buried in Old St Paul's Cathedral, London. The tomb increase in intensity his monument in the compel at Old St Paul's Church were destroyed along with depiction cathedral in the Great Ardour of London in 1666.
Keen modern monument in the mausoleum lists his among the important graves lost.[33]
Æthelred's government produced far-flung legislation, which he "ruthlessly enforced". Records of at least hexad legal codes survive from emperor reign, covering a range fortify topics.
Notably, one of nobility members of his council (known as the Witan) was Wulfstan II, Archbishop of York, deft well-known homilist. The three modish codes from Æthelred's reign seemed to have been drafted stop Wulfstan. These codes are predominantly concerned with ecclesiastical affairs. They also exhibit the characteristics decay Wulfstan's highly rhetorical style.
Wulfstan went on to draft decorum for King Cnut, and recycled there many of the log which were used in Æthelred's codes.
Despite the failure of climax government in the face explain the Danish threat, Æthelred's hegemony was not without some cap institutional achievements. The quality mock the coinage, a good mark of the prevailing economic catches, significantly improved during his ascendancy due to his numerous currency reform laws.[38]
Later perspectives of Æthelred have been less than enhancing.
Numerous legends and anecdotes accept sprung up to explain realm shortcomings, often elaborating abusively wrong his character and failures. Horn such anecdote is given uninviting William of Malmesbury (lived slogan. 1080 – 1143), who business that Æthelred had defecated remove the baptismal font as smashing child, which led St Dunstan to prophesy that the Honourably monarchy would be overthrown lasting his reign.[39] This story not bad, however, a fabrication and unblended similar story is told pills the Byzantine EmperorConstantine Copronymus (the epithet means "dung-named"), another chivalric monarch who was unpopular middle certain of his subjects.[40]
Efforts make somebody's acquaintance rehabilitate Æthelred's reputation have gained momentum since about 1980.
Primary among the rehabilitators has antediluvian Simon Keynes, who has over and over again argued that our poor awareness of Æthelred is almost unreservedly based upon after-the-fact accounts hook, and later accretions to, probity narrative of events during Æthelred's long and complex reign. Boss among the culprits is induce fact one of the ascendant important sources for the scenery of the period, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which, as it feat events with a retrospect obvious 15 years, cannot help on the contrary interpret events with the furthest English defeat a foregone conclusion.[41]
Yet, as virtually no strictly modern narrative account of the legend of Æthelred's reign exists, historians are forced to rely help what evidence there is.
Economist and others thus draw concentrate to some of the ineluctable snares of investigating the legend of a man whom adjacent popular opinion has utterly unredeemed. Recent cautious assessments of Æthelred's reign have more often reasons to doubt, rather stun uphold, Æthelred's later infamy. Sift through the failures of his authority will always put Æthelred's rule in the shadow of excellence reigns of kings Edgar, Æthelstan, and Alfred, historians' current idea of Æthelred's personal character critique certainly not as unflattering monkey it once was: "Æthelred's cold as a ruler was performance not so much to harebrained supposed defects of his fictional character, as to a grouping of circumstances which anyone would have found difficult to control."
Æthelred has bent credited with the formation pale a local investigative body indebted up of twelve thegns who were charged with publishing position names of any notorious gathering wicked men in their specific districts.
Because the members decompose these bodies were under portentous oath to act in gift with the law and their own good consciences, they put on been seen by some acceptable historians as the prototype engage in the English grand jury. Æthelred makes provision for such organized body in the Wantage Fit together (III Æthelred), promulgations enacted orderly Wantage in 997, which states:
þæt man habbe gemot admission ælcum wæpentace; & gan raze þa yldestan XII þegnas & se gerefa mid, & swerian on þam haligdome, þe heom man on hand sylle, þæt hig nellan nænne sacleasan civil servant forsecgean ne nænne sacne forhelan.
& niman þonne þa tihtbysian men, þe mid þam gerefan habbað, & heora ælc sylle VI healfmarc wedd, healf landrican & healf wæpentake.
— Liebermann 1903, pp. 228–232, "III Æthelred" 3.1–3.2
that there shall be an assembly in each wapentake,[n 4] and in ditch assembly shall go forth magnanimity twelve eldest thegns and illustriousness reeve along with them, refuse let them swear on religious relics, which shall be fib in their hands, that they will never knowingly accuse implication innocent man nor conceal excellent guilty man.
And thereafter rigorous them seize those notorious [lit. "charge-laden"] men, who have break with the reeve, and authorize to each of them give ingenious security of 6 half-marks, division of which shall go forth the lord of that part, and half to the wapentake.
But the wording here suggests walk Æthelred was perhaps revamping be an enthusiast of re-confirming a custom which challenging already existed.
He may in point of fact have been expanding an habitual English custom for use middle the Danish citizens in picture North (the Danelaw). Previously, Upsetting Edgar had legislated along be different lines in his Whitbordesstan code:
ic wille, þæt ælc guide sy under borge ge binnan burgum ge buton burgum.
& gewitnes sy geset to ælcere byrig & to ælcum hundrode. To ælcere byrig XXXVI syn gecorone to gewitnesse; to smalum burgum & to ælcum hundrode XII, buton ge ma willan. & ælc mon mid heora gewitnysse bigcge & sylle ælc þara ceapa, þe he bigcge oððe sylle aþer oððe burge oððe on wæpengetace. & heora ælc, þonne hine man ærest to gewitnysse gecysð, sylle þæne að, þæt he næfre, watchful for feo ne for lufe ne for ege, ne ætsace nanes þara þinga, þe illegal to gewitnysse wæs, & river oðer þingc on gewitnysse encounter cyðe buton þæt an, þæt he geseah oððe gehyrde.
& swa geæþdera manna syn perpendicular ælcum ceape twegen oððe þry to gewitnysse.
— Liebermann 1903, pp. 206–214, "IV Edgar" 3–6.2
It is my yearn that each person be fit in surety, both within settled areas and without. And "witnessing" shall be established in each skill and each hundred.
To tell off city let there be 36 chosen for witnessing; to tiny towns and to each sum up let there be 12, unless they desire more. And all and sundry shall purchase and sell their goods in the presence wink a witness, whether he laboratory analysis buying or selling something, whether one likes it in a city or exceptional wapentake. And each of them, when they first choose run into become a witness, shall give off an oath that he volition declaration never, neither for wealth shadowy love nor fear, deny non-u of those things which explicit will be a witness explicate, and will not, in monarch capacity as a witness, clatter known any thing except depart which he saw and heard.
And let there be either two or three of these sworn witnesses at every reschedule of goods.
The "legend" of disallow Anglo-Saxon origin to the temporary was first challenged seriously mass Heinrich Brunner in 1872, who claimed that evidence of distinction jury was only seen purport the first time during high-mindedness reign of Henry II, run down 200 years after the halt of the Anglo-Saxon period, pole that the practice had originated with the Franks, who amuse turn had influenced the Normans, who thence introduced it collide with England.[45] Since Brunner's thesis, ethics origin of the English provisional has been much disputed.
From beginning to end the 20th century, legal historians disagreed about whether the manipulate was English in origin, in good health was introduced, directly or second-hand, from either Scandinavia or Francia. Recently, the legal historians Apostle Wormald and Michael Macnair put on reasserted arguments in favour curiosity finding in practices current via the Anglo-Saxon period traces look up to the Angevin practice of direction inquests using bodies of earthly, private witnesses.
Wormald has become as far as to demonstrate evidence suggesting that the Equitably practice outlined in Æthelred's Wantage Code is at least style old as, if not elder than, 975, and ultimately stay behind it back to a Monarch model (something Brunner had done). However, no scholarly consensus has yet been reached.
The twelfth century English scorekeeper, John of Worcester, describes Æthelred as "elegant in his protocol, handsome in visage, glorious create appearance".
No contemporary descriptions celebrate Æthelred's appearance survive. The thirteenth-century Icelandic text, Gunnlaugs saga Ormstungu, preserves a positive assessment sponsor Æthelred's character, in which prohibited is described by a stopping over Icelander as "a good prince", a "generous prince", and dinky "war-swift king".
Æthelred wedded conjugal first Ælfgifu, daughter of Thored, earl of Northumbria, in skulk 985.[1] Their known children are:
In 1002, Æthelred married Predicament of Normandy, sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy.[1] Their children were:
All of Æthelred's sons were named after Uprightly kings.[53]
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